The world of night vision is as fascinating as it is mysterious. For nearly a century, engineers and scientists have been pushing the limits of technology to allow humans to see in the dark. But where did it all begin? Who were the pioneers behind the first image intensifier tubes, and how did their inventions evolve into the different generations of NVG (Night Vision Goggles) we know today? In this article, we’ll take a journey through almost one hundred years of innovation to uncover the origins, evolution, and breakthroughs that shaped the modern world of night vision.
The foundation of night vision began with Dutch scientists G. Holst and H. De Boer, who introduced the concept of converting invisible infrared light into a visible image. Although early attempts failed, Holst—working at Philips—successfully developed the first infrared image converter tube in 1934. This device used a photocathode and fluorescent screen to transform infrared into visible imagery in real time, becoming the precursor to modern image intensification.
The invention of the cathode ray tube, primarily for television, indirectly paved the way for night vision research. Systems from this era required active infrared illumination, making them the first operational night-vision-capable devices.
One key pioneer was Kálmán Tihanyi, a Hungarian physicist, who designed a night vision device concept to assist British defense against aerial threats.
These early instruments are now classified as Generation 0: infrared-assisted systems with limited lifespan and distorted image quality.
Kálmán Tihanyi.
The company AEG began formal night-vision development, marking one of the earliest industrial research programs in Europe.
The Soviet Union developed portable infrared-based systems, typically paired with large external battery packs and infrared lamps for illumination.
Notable examples include:
Portable binocular prototypes for infantry
The “Dudka” night-vision system integrated into T-34 tanks, with around 50 units reportedly deployed during the Battle of Stalingrad
Presented here are the project description and blueprints of the night-time tank aiming device, developed under Contract #BZ-415 on May 29, 1941, for use in armored combat.
Blueprints of the device.
Germany released the ZG 1229 “Vampir” infrared riflescope for the StG-44, and the FG-1250 variant for Panther tanks, making these among the first weapon-mounted night-vision solutions.
Although rumors suggest Allied troops encountered German night-vision snipers, no verified documentation confirms direct combat use.
Illustration of the ZG 1229 scope mounted on an StG 44 assault rifle, holded by a soldier of the Wehrmarcht. The scope is equipped with a searchlight powered by a battery.
FG1250 night vision scope installed on a Panther tank. Approximately 50 tanks were equipped by the end of World War II.
Some accounts claim that Allied soldiers faced German snipers equipped with night vision devices, but to date, no historical evidence has confirmed these reports.
Across the Atlantic, the United States developed the M3 rifle. Based on the M2 carbine, this weapon was fitted with a scope known as a “sniperscope” or “snooperscope” and equipped with infrared lamps. Its first use occurred during the Battle of Okinawa in 1945.
Illustrations of the M3 Carbine.
These devices are today considered the Generation 0 operational night vision systems. These devices are now considered Generation 0 operational night vision systems. They are no longer manufactured and have become completely obsolete compared to modern night vision technologies.
During the 60s, a new generation of night vision devices appeared, featuring the S-20 photocathode. Building on Generation 0 technology, these systems could operate using ambient light, unlike the previous generation, which relied entirely on infrared illumination. Their amplification reached up to ×1000, although additional IR light was still required in extremely dark environments.
Example of device equipped with first-generation image intensifier tubes :
Here, the PVS-2 “Starlight” scope mounted on a Colt XM16E1 belonging to a U.S. Army soldier during the Vietnam War.
Overall specifications of Gen 1 tube amplifiers :
Generation 1 night vision devices are still being produced and widely used today, especially in the civilian and amateur markets due to their affordability. However, they suffer from several limitations when compared to Gen 2 and Gen 3 systems, including lower image quality, reduced range, and less versatility.
In the 1970s, second-generation night vision goggles (NVGs) made their debut. These new image intensifier tubes were equipped with a Micro Channel Plate (MCP) and an S-25 photocathode. These advancements provided greater image clarity, free from distortion or the “fisheye” effect, and offered an amplification level of around x20,000.
Example of models to feature second-generation tubes :
AN/PVS-3 monocular night vision scope on a Colt / Armalite Model 01, also known as the AR-15.
AN/PVS-5 binoculars from ITT Industries / Litton Industries worn by a U.S. Military Police soldier.
Overall specifications of Gen 2 tube amplifiers :
Still relevant today, Generation 2 tubes are appreciated for their efficiency. Notable manufacturers include Photonis, NNVT, and Ekran.
In the 1980s, Elbit and Harris Corporation introduced third-generation night vision tubes. Still featuring a Micro Channel Plate (MCP), these tubes are distinguished by a gallium arsenide photocathode, providing significantly improved resolution, amplification, and operational life. An ion barrier film was also added to further extend the tube’s lifespan. These advancements allow amplification levels of up to x50,000.
Examples of models released with Gen 3 tubes :
A U.S. Army soldier wearing single-tube binoculars, model AN/PVS-7. It has a single image intensifier tube that provides a stereoscopic view for both eyes.
A U.S. Army soldier with an AN/PVS-14 night vision monocular.
Two operators of the US Army 75th Rangers Regiment with L3 AN/PVS-15 night vision goggles.
Operator of the US Army CAG Delta Force wearing L3 Harris GPNVG-18 panoramic night vision goggles.
Overall specifications of Gen 3 tube amplifiers :
The “Generation 2+” tubes were actually released after the Generation 3 tubes. They resulted from a modernization project aimed at improving the performance of second-generation image intensifiers. These tubes feature a tri-alkali S25 photocathode combined with an enhanced Micro Channel Plate (MCP), which generally provides better overall performance.
However, it’s important to note that the term “Gen 2+” is primarily a commercial designation, rather than an officially recognized technological classification.
The so-called “Generation 4” night vision tube was once hailed as a breakthrough, a filmless design offering double the effective sensitivity of traditional Gen 3 systems. Developed by Litton, it delivered unmatched image clarity and low-light performance. But despite its promise, Gen 4’s story took an unexpected turn.
Rival manufacturer ITT, which supplied most U.S. military night vision systems, struggled to replicate the new technology. Meanwhile, Litton’s early production runs exposed a fatal flaw: the tubes were fragile, especially under the recoil of weapons. This reliability issue worried the military, which instead chose ITT’s “Thin-Film Gen 3” design slightly less sensitive, but much more durable and easier to produce.
As a result, the “Generation 4” filmless tube quietly disappeared from mainstream use. Officially, the U.S. Army rebranded its standard as Gen 3 Omni VII Thin-Film, effectively erasing the “Gen 4” label. Yet, the legend lives on: specialized versions, such as the MX10160B, are still produced for aviation and special forces, keeping the spirit of “Gen 4” alive even if it never regained its former glory.
